Андрология и генитальная хирургия. 2023; 24: 42-49
Перспективы перорального применения фосфомицина при хроническом бактериальном простатите
https://doi.org/10.17650/2070-9781-2023-24-3-42-49Аннотация
Наиболее частым возбудителем хронического бактериального простатита является Escherichia coli, однако в последние годы в структуре микробных этиологических агентов доля других как грамотрицательных, так и грамположительных микроорганизмов растет. Происходит не только рост доли штаммов Escherichia coli, продуцирующих β-лактамазы расширенного спектра, что обеспечивает резистентность бактерий к пенициллинам, цефалоспоринам различных поколений и азтреонаму, но и штаммов, продуцирующих карбапенемазы. Отмечена тенденция к повышению резистентности классических уропатогенов к фторхинолонам. Привлекательной альтернативой для лечения бактериального простатита может стать фосфомицин, что связано с его высокой биодоступностью при пероральном приеме и способностью достигать высоких концентраций в тканях предстательной железы.
В настоящем обзоре рассмотрены механизмы действия фосфомицина, особенности его фармакокинетики в предстательной железе, антимикробный спектр и возможности формирования резистентности уропатогенов к этому антибиотику. Представлены результаты клинических исследований, посвященных пероральному применению фосфомицина при хроническом бактериальном простатите.
Список литературы
1. Bouiller K., Zayet S., Lalloz P.E. et al. Efficacy and safety of oral fosfomycin-trometamol in male urinary tract infections with multidrug-resistant enterobacterales. Antibiotics (Basel) 2022;11(2):198. DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11020198
2. Kwan A.C.F., Beahm N.P. Fosfomycin for bacterial prostatitis: a review. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020;56(4):106106. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.106106
3. El-Sokkary R., Uysal S., Erdem H. et al. Profiles of multidrug-resistant organisms among patients with bacteremia in intensive care units: an international ID-IRI survey. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2021;40(11):2323–34. DOI: 10.1007/s10096-021-04288-1
4. Marino A., Munafò A., Zagami A. et al. Ampicillin plus ceftriaxone regimen against Enterococcus faecalis endocarditis: a literature review. J Clin Med 2021;10(19):4594. DOI: 10.3390/jcm10194594
5. Wagenlehner F.M., Pilatz A., Bschleipfer T. et al. Bacterial prostatitis. World J Urol 2013;31(4):711–6. DOI: 10.1007/s00345-013-1055-x
6. Bonkat G., Bartoletti R., Bruyere F. et al. EAU Guidelines on urological infections. European association of Urology, 2022. Available at: https://d56bochluxqnz.cloudfront.net/documents/full-guideline/EAUGuidelines-on-Urological-Infections-2022.pdf. Accessed: 24.11.2022.
7. Rees J., Abrahams M., Doble A., Cooper A. Prostatitis expert reference group (PERG). Diagnosis and treatment of chronic bacterial prostatitis and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome: a consensus guideline. BJU Int 2015;116(4):509–25. DOI: 10.1111/bju.13101
8. Sharp V.J., Takacs E.B., Powell C.R. Prostatitis: diagnosis and treatment. Am Fam Physician 2010;82(4):397–406. PMID: 20704171.
9. Lipsky B.A., Byren I., Hoey C.T. Treatment of bacterial prostatitis. Clin Infect Dis 2010;50(12):1641–52. DOI: 10.1086/652861
10. Perletti G., Marras E., Wagenlehner F.M., Magri V. Antimicrobial therapy for chronic bacterial prostatitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;(8):CD009071. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009071.pub2
11. Gajdács M., Ábrók M., Lázár A., Burián K. Epidemiology and antibiotic resistance profile of bacterial uropathogens in male patients: a 10-year retrospective study. Farmacia 2021;69(3):530–9. DOI: 10.31925/farmacia.2021.3.16
12. Bartsch S.M., McKinnell J.A., Mueller L.E. et al. Potential economic burden of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) in the United States. Clin Microbiol Infect 2017;23(1):48. e9–48.e16. DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2016.09.003
13. Trad M.A., Zhong L.H., Llorin R.M. et al. Ertapenem in outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy for complicated urinary tract infections. J Chemother 2017;29(1):25–9. DOI: 10.1080/1120009X.2016.1158937
14. Marino A., Stracquadanio S., Bellanca C.M. et al. Oral fosfomycin formulation in bacterial prostatitis: new role for an old molecule-brief literature review and clinical considerations. Infect Dis Rep 2022;14(4):621–34. DOI: 10.3390/idr14040067
15. Gardiner B.J., Mahony A.A., Ellis A.G. et al. Is Fosfomycin a potential treatment alternative for multidrug-resistant gram-negative prostatitis? Clin Infect Dis 2014;58(4):e101–5. DOI: 10.1093/cid/cit704
16. López-Montesinos I., Horcajada J.P. Oral and intravenous fosfomycin in complicated urinary tract infections. Rev Esp Quimioter 2019;32 Suppl 1(Suppl 1):37–44. PMID: 31131591.
17. Falagas M.E., Vouloumanou E.K., Samonis G., Vardakas K.Z. Fosfomycin. Clin Microbiol Rev 2016;29(2):321–47. DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00068-15
18. Reeves D.S. Fosfomycin trometamol. J Antimicrob Chemother 1994;34(6):853–8. DOI: 10.1093/jac/34.6.853
19. Vardakas K.Z., Legakis N.J., Triarides N., Falagas M.E. Susceptibility of contemporary isolates to fosfomycin: a systematic review of the literature. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2016;47(4):269– 85. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2016.02.001
20. Karlowsky J.A., Denisuik A.J., Lagacé-Wiens P.R. et al. In Vitro activity of fosfomycin against Escherichia coli isolated from patients with urinary tract infections in Canada as part of the CANWARD surveillance study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014;58(2):1252–6. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.02399-13
21. Mezzatesta M.L, La Rosa G., Maugeri G. et al. In vitro activity of fosfomycin trometamol and other oral antibiotics against multidrug-resistant uropathogens. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2017;49(6):763–6. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2017.01.020
22. Sahni R.D., Balaji V., Varghese R. et al. Evaluation of fosfomycin activity against uropathogens in a fosfomycin-naive population in South India: a prospective study. Future Microbiol 2013;8(5): 675–80. DOI: 10.2217/fmb.13.31
23. Lee S.Y., Park Y.J., Yu J.K. et al. Prevalence of acquired fosfomycin resistance among extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae clinical isolates in Korea and IS26-composite transposon surrounding fosA3. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012;67(12):2843–7. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dks319
24. Liu H.Y., Lin H.C, Lin Y.C. et al. Antimicrobial susceptibilities of urinary extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae to fosfomycin and nitrofurantoin in a teaching hospital in Taiwan. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2011;44(5):364–8. DOI: 10.1016/j.jmii.2010.08.012
25. Butcu M., Akcay S.S., Inan A.S. et al. In vitro susceptibility of enterococci strains isolated from urine samples to fosfomycin and other antibiotics. J Infect Chemother 2011;17(4):575–8. DOI: 10.1007/s10156-011-0212-7
26. Karageorgopoulos D.E., Wang R., Yu X.H., Falagas M.E. Fosfomycin: evaluation of the published evidence on the emergence of antimicrobial resistance in Gram-negative pathogens. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012;67(2):255–68. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkr466
27. McCoy A.J., Sandlin R.C., Maurelli A.T. In vitro and in vivo functional activity of Chlamydia MurA, a UDP-N-acetylglucosamine enolpyruvyl transferase involved in peptidoglycan synthesis and fosfomycin resistance. J Bacteriol 2003;185(4):1218–28. DOI: 10.1128/JB.185.4.1218-1228.2003
28. Gisin J., Schneider A., Nägele B. et al. A cell wall recycling shortcut that bypasses peptidoglycan de novo biosynthesis. Nat Chem Biol 2013;9(8):491–3. DOI: 10.1038/nchembio.1289
29. Xu S., Fu Z., Zhou Y. et al. Mutations of the transporter proteins GlpT and UhpT confer fosfomycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Front Microbiol 2017;8:914. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.00914
30. Zhanel G.G., Zhanel M.A., Karlowsky J.A. Oral Fosfomycin for the treatment of acute and chronic bacterial prostatitis caused by multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol 2018;2018:1404813. DOI: 10.1155/2018/1404813
31. Michalopoulos A.S., Livaditis I.G., Gougoutas V. The revival of fosfomycin. Int J Infect Dis 2011;15(11):e732–9. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2011.07.007
32. Charalabopoulos K., Karachalios G., Baltogiannis D. et al. Penetration of antimicrobial agents into the prostate. Chemotherapy 2003;49(6):269–79. DOI: 10.1159/000074526
33. Cunha B.A., Gran A., Raza M. Persistent extended-spectrum β-lactamase-positive Escherichia coli chronic prostatitis successfully treated with a combination of fosfomycin and doxycycline. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2015;45(4):427–9. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2014.12.019
34. Fan L., Shang X., Zhu J. et al. Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic studies and prostatic tissue distribution of fosfomycin tromethamine in bacterial prostatitis or normal rats. Andrologia 2018;50(6):e13021. DOI: 10.1111/and.13021
35. Cai W.W., Mo D.S., Fan M. et al. [Fosfomycin tromethamine inhibits the expressions of TNF-α, IL-8 and IL-6 in the prostate tissue of rats with chronic bacterial prostatitis (In Chinese)]. Zhonghua Nan Ke Xue 2018;24(6):491–8. PMID: 30173452.
36. EUCAST. MIC distributions for Fosfomycin, 2022-11-24. Available at: https://mic.eucast.org/search/?search%5Bmethod%5D=mic&search%5Bantibiotic%5D=100&search%5Bspecies%5D=-1&search%5Bdisk_content%5D=-1&search%5Blimit%5D=50. (accessed on November 24, 2022).
37. Tosto F., Marino A., Moscatt V. et al. Methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus prosthetic vascular graft infection after a Fontan procedure in an adult patient: a case report. World Acad Sci J 2022;4(3):19. DOI: 10.3892/wasj.2022.154
38. Rhodes N.J., Gardiner B.J., Neely M.N. et al. Optimal timing of oral fosfomycin administration for pre-prostate biopsy prophylaxis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2015;70(7):2068–73. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkv067
39. Denes E. Prolonged course of Fosfomycin-Trometamol for chronic prostatitis: an unknown good option. Scand J Urol 2021;55(4):344–5. DOI: 10.1080/21681805.2021.1933170
40. Almeida F., Santos Silva A., Silva Pinto A., Sarmento A. Chronic prostatitis caused by extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli managed using oral fosfomycin-A case report. IDCases. 2019;15:e00493. DOI: 10.1016/j.idcr.2019.e00493
41. Grayson M.L., Macesic N., Trevillyan J. et al. Fosfomycin for treatment of prostatitis: new tricks for old dogs. Clin Infect Dis 2015;61(7):1141–3. DOI: 10.1093/cid/civ436
42. Los-Arcos I., Pigrau C., Rodríguez-Pardo D. et al. Long-term fosfomycin-tromethamine oral therapy for difficult-to-treat chronic bacterial prostatitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2015;60(3):1854–8. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.02611-15
43. Karaiskos I., Galani L., Sakka V. et al. Oral Fosfomycin for the treatment of chronic bacterial prostatitis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2019;74(5):1430–7. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkz015
44. Hendlin D., Stapley E.O., Jackson M. et al. Phosphonomycin, a new antibiotic produced by strains of streptomyces. Science 1969;166(3901):122–3. DOI: 10.1126/science.166.3901.122
45. Sorlozano A., Jimenez-Pacheco A., de Dios Luna Del Castillo J. et al. Evolution of the resistance to antibiotics of bacteria involved in urinary tract infections: a 7-year surveillance study. Am J Infect Control 2014;42(10):1033–8. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2014.06.013
Andrology and Genital Surgery. 2023; 24: 42-49
Prospects of oral fosfomycin for the treatment of chronic bacterial prostatitis
https://doi.org/10.17650/2070-9781-2023-24-3-42-49Abstract
The most frequent causative agent of chronic bacterial prostatitis is Escherichia coli, however, in recent years, the proportion of other gram-negative and gram-positive microorganisms in the structure of pathogens has been increasing. There is not only an increase in the proportion of extended-spectrum β-lactamases producing Escherichia coli, which ensures the resistance of bacteria to penicillins, cephalosporins and aztreonam, but also carbapenemases producing strains. The tendency of increasing resistance of uropathogens to fluoroquinolones is noted. An alternative for the treatment of bacterial prostatitis may be fosfomycin, which is due to its high bioavailability when taken orally and the ability to reach high concentrations in the prostate.
This review examines the mechanisms of action of fosfomycin, the features of its pharmacokinetics in the prostate gland, the antimicrobial spectrum and the mechanisms of resistance to fosfomycin of uropathogens. The results of oral fosfomycin for the treatment of chronic bacterial prostatitis are discussed.
References
1. Bouiller K., Zayet S., Lalloz P.E. et al. Efficacy and safety of oral fosfomycin-trometamol in male urinary tract infections with multidrug-resistant enterobacterales. Antibiotics (Basel) 2022;11(2):198. DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11020198
2. Kwan A.C.F., Beahm N.P. Fosfomycin for bacterial prostatitis: a review. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020;56(4):106106. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.106106
3. El-Sokkary R., Uysal S., Erdem H. et al. Profiles of multidrug-resistant organisms among patients with bacteremia in intensive care units: an international ID-IRI survey. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2021;40(11):2323–34. DOI: 10.1007/s10096-021-04288-1
4. Marino A., Munafò A., Zagami A. et al. Ampicillin plus ceftriaxone regimen against Enterococcus faecalis endocarditis: a literature review. J Clin Med 2021;10(19):4594. DOI: 10.3390/jcm10194594
5. Wagenlehner F.M., Pilatz A., Bschleipfer T. et al. Bacterial prostatitis. World J Urol 2013;31(4):711–6. DOI: 10.1007/s00345-013-1055-x
6. Bonkat G., Bartoletti R., Bruyere F. et al. EAU Guidelines on urological infections. European association of Urology, 2022. Available at: https://d56bochluxqnz.cloudfront.net/documents/full-guideline/EAUGuidelines-on-Urological-Infections-2022.pdf. Accessed: 24.11.2022.
7. Rees J., Abrahams M., Doble A., Cooper A. Prostatitis expert reference group (PERG). Diagnosis and treatment of chronic bacterial prostatitis and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome: a consensus guideline. BJU Int 2015;116(4):509–25. DOI: 10.1111/bju.13101
8. Sharp V.J., Takacs E.B., Powell C.R. Prostatitis: diagnosis and treatment. Am Fam Physician 2010;82(4):397–406. PMID: 20704171.
9. Lipsky B.A., Byren I., Hoey C.T. Treatment of bacterial prostatitis. Clin Infect Dis 2010;50(12):1641–52. DOI: 10.1086/652861
10. Perletti G., Marras E., Wagenlehner F.M., Magri V. Antimicrobial therapy for chronic bacterial prostatitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;(8):CD009071. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009071.pub2
11. Gajdács M., Ábrók M., Lázár A., Burián K. Epidemiology and antibiotic resistance profile of bacterial uropathogens in male patients: a 10-year retrospective study. Farmacia 2021;69(3):530–9. DOI: 10.31925/farmacia.2021.3.16
12. Bartsch S.M., McKinnell J.A., Mueller L.E. et al. Potential economic burden of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) in the United States. Clin Microbiol Infect 2017;23(1):48. e9–48.e16. DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2016.09.003
13. Trad M.A., Zhong L.H., Llorin R.M. et al. Ertapenem in outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy for complicated urinary tract infections. J Chemother 2017;29(1):25–9. DOI: 10.1080/1120009X.2016.1158937
14. Marino A., Stracquadanio S., Bellanca C.M. et al. Oral fosfomycin formulation in bacterial prostatitis: new role for an old molecule-brief literature review and clinical considerations. Infect Dis Rep 2022;14(4):621–34. DOI: 10.3390/idr14040067
15. Gardiner B.J., Mahony A.A., Ellis A.G. et al. Is Fosfomycin a potential treatment alternative for multidrug-resistant gram-negative prostatitis? Clin Infect Dis 2014;58(4):e101–5. DOI: 10.1093/cid/cit704
16. López-Montesinos I., Horcajada J.P. Oral and intravenous fosfomycin in complicated urinary tract infections. Rev Esp Quimioter 2019;32 Suppl 1(Suppl 1):37–44. PMID: 31131591.
17. Falagas M.E., Vouloumanou E.K., Samonis G., Vardakas K.Z. Fosfomycin. Clin Microbiol Rev 2016;29(2):321–47. DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00068-15
18. Reeves D.S. Fosfomycin trometamol. J Antimicrob Chemother 1994;34(6):853–8. DOI: 10.1093/jac/34.6.853
19. Vardakas K.Z., Legakis N.J., Triarides N., Falagas M.E. Susceptibility of contemporary isolates to fosfomycin: a systematic review of the literature. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2016;47(4):269– 85. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2016.02.001
20. Karlowsky J.A., Denisuik A.J., Lagacé-Wiens P.R. et al. In Vitro activity of fosfomycin against Escherichia coli isolated from patients with urinary tract infections in Canada as part of the CANWARD surveillance study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014;58(2):1252–6. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.02399-13
21. Mezzatesta M.L, La Rosa G., Maugeri G. et al. In vitro activity of fosfomycin trometamol and other oral antibiotics against multidrug-resistant uropathogens. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2017;49(6):763–6. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2017.01.020
22. Sahni R.D., Balaji V., Varghese R. et al. Evaluation of fosfomycin activity against uropathogens in a fosfomycin-naive population in South India: a prospective study. Future Microbiol 2013;8(5): 675–80. DOI: 10.2217/fmb.13.31
23. Lee S.Y., Park Y.J., Yu J.K. et al. Prevalence of acquired fosfomycin resistance among extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae clinical isolates in Korea and IS26-composite transposon surrounding fosA3. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012;67(12):2843–7. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dks319
24. Liu H.Y., Lin H.C, Lin Y.C. et al. Antimicrobial susceptibilities of urinary extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae to fosfomycin and nitrofurantoin in a teaching hospital in Taiwan. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2011;44(5):364–8. DOI: 10.1016/j.jmii.2010.08.012
25. Butcu M., Akcay S.S., Inan A.S. et al. In vitro susceptibility of enterococci strains isolated from urine samples to fosfomycin and other antibiotics. J Infect Chemother 2011;17(4):575–8. DOI: 10.1007/s10156-011-0212-7
26. Karageorgopoulos D.E., Wang R., Yu X.H., Falagas M.E. Fosfomycin: evaluation of the published evidence on the emergence of antimicrobial resistance in Gram-negative pathogens. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012;67(2):255–68. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkr466
27. McCoy A.J., Sandlin R.C., Maurelli A.T. In vitro and in vivo functional activity of Chlamydia MurA, a UDP-N-acetylglucosamine enolpyruvyl transferase involved in peptidoglycan synthesis and fosfomycin resistance. J Bacteriol 2003;185(4):1218–28. DOI: 10.1128/JB.185.4.1218-1228.2003
28. Gisin J., Schneider A., Nägele B. et al. A cell wall recycling shortcut that bypasses peptidoglycan de novo biosynthesis. Nat Chem Biol 2013;9(8):491–3. DOI: 10.1038/nchembio.1289
29. Xu S., Fu Z., Zhou Y. et al. Mutations of the transporter proteins GlpT and UhpT confer fosfomycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Front Microbiol 2017;8:914. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.00914
30. Zhanel G.G., Zhanel M.A., Karlowsky J.A. Oral Fosfomycin for the treatment of acute and chronic bacterial prostatitis caused by multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol 2018;2018:1404813. DOI: 10.1155/2018/1404813
31. Michalopoulos A.S., Livaditis I.G., Gougoutas V. The revival of fosfomycin. Int J Infect Dis 2011;15(11):e732–9. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2011.07.007
32. Charalabopoulos K., Karachalios G., Baltogiannis D. et al. Penetration of antimicrobial agents into the prostate. Chemotherapy 2003;49(6):269–79. DOI: 10.1159/000074526
33. Cunha B.A., Gran A., Raza M. Persistent extended-spectrum β-lactamase-positive Escherichia coli chronic prostatitis successfully treated with a combination of fosfomycin and doxycycline. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2015;45(4):427–9. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2014.12.019
34. Fan L., Shang X., Zhu J. et al. Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic studies and prostatic tissue distribution of fosfomycin tromethamine in bacterial prostatitis or normal rats. Andrologia 2018;50(6):e13021. DOI: 10.1111/and.13021
35. Cai W.W., Mo D.S., Fan M. et al. [Fosfomycin tromethamine inhibits the expressions of TNF-α, IL-8 and IL-6 in the prostate tissue of rats with chronic bacterial prostatitis (In Chinese)]. Zhonghua Nan Ke Xue 2018;24(6):491–8. PMID: 30173452.
36. EUCAST. MIC distributions for Fosfomycin, 2022-11-24. Available at: https://mic.eucast.org/search/?search%5Bmethod%5D=mic&search%5Bantibiotic%5D=100&search%5Bspecies%5D=-1&search%5Bdisk_content%5D=-1&search%5Blimit%5D=50. (accessed on November 24, 2022).
37. Tosto F., Marino A., Moscatt V. et al. Methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus prosthetic vascular graft infection after a Fontan procedure in an adult patient: a case report. World Acad Sci J 2022;4(3):19. DOI: 10.3892/wasj.2022.154
38. Rhodes N.J., Gardiner B.J., Neely M.N. et al. Optimal timing of oral fosfomycin administration for pre-prostate biopsy prophylaxis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2015;70(7):2068–73. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkv067
39. Denes E. Prolonged course of Fosfomycin-Trometamol for chronic prostatitis: an unknown good option. Scand J Urol 2021;55(4):344–5. DOI: 10.1080/21681805.2021.1933170
40. Almeida F., Santos Silva A., Silva Pinto A., Sarmento A. Chronic prostatitis caused by extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli managed using oral fosfomycin-A case report. IDCases. 2019;15:e00493. DOI: 10.1016/j.idcr.2019.e00493
41. Grayson M.L., Macesic N., Trevillyan J. et al. Fosfomycin for treatment of prostatitis: new tricks for old dogs. Clin Infect Dis 2015;61(7):1141–3. DOI: 10.1093/cid/civ436
42. Los-Arcos I., Pigrau C., Rodríguez-Pardo D. et al. Long-term fosfomycin-tromethamine oral therapy for difficult-to-treat chronic bacterial prostatitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2015;60(3):1854–8. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.02611-15
43. Karaiskos I., Galani L., Sakka V. et al. Oral Fosfomycin for the treatment of chronic bacterial prostatitis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2019;74(5):1430–7. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkz015
44. Hendlin D., Stapley E.O., Jackson M. et al. Phosphonomycin, a new antibiotic produced by strains of streptomyces. Science 1969;166(3901):122–3. DOI: 10.1126/science.166.3901.122
45. Sorlozano A., Jimenez-Pacheco A., de Dios Luna Del Castillo J. et al. Evolution of the resistance to antibiotics of bacteria involved in urinary tract infections: a 7-year surveillance study. Am J Infect Control 2014;42(10):1033–8. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2014.06.013
